"There is nothing impossible to him who will try"

Alexander the Great

The rise, conquests and fall of Alexander the Great

Alexander III was born in 356 BCE in the Macedonian capital of Pella. He was the son of King Philip II and Olympias, daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus. Groomed for greatness, Alexander was educated by Aristotle and gained early military experience at the Battle of Chaeronea at age 18, a decisive victory for Macedon.

Despite his promise, his succession was uncertain. Philip’s marriage to Cleopatra Eurydice, a younger wife who could bear another heir, threatened Alexander’s position. Tensions culminated in a public argument that led to Alexander’s exile to Illyria in 337 BCE, accompanied by his close companions Hephaestion and Ptolemy. He returned a year later after reconciling with his father. It is worth mentioning that Ptolemy later found the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, which endured for 275 years until the death of Cleopatra VII.

In 336 BCE, Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard, Pausanias. The motives remain debated—some suspect Persian involvement, others point to Olympias. Regardless, Alexander ascended the throne at just 20 years old.

The Persian campaign

Fight at Halicarnassus 334 BCE:

The siege of Halicarnassus was a tough challenge for Alexander and his army. The city was heavily fortified with two high walls and a deep moat before its gates. Inside, a force of Greek mercenaries led by Memnon of Rhodes—an able commander appointed by Darius to lead the Persian navy—defended the city. Initial Macedonian attempts to breach the defenses failed, but with persistence, they eventually forced Memnon to retreat. Before fleeing by sea, he ordered much of the city burned. With resistance collapsed, Alexander took control, extinguished the fires, and spared the inhabitants. The siege lasted several months and gave Alexander and his men a harsh preview of the campaigns ahead.

Moving deeper into Persia:

After leaving a garrison of 3,000 infantry and 200 cavalry at Halicarnassus, Alexander advanced through Phrygia, pushing deeper into Persian territory. He captured several cities with little resistance and imposed heavy taxes on their inhabitants. Around this time, he received reports of a betrayal by Alexander, son of Aëropus—a companion and commander of the Thessalian cavalry—who had offered to assassinate Alexander the Great in a letter to Darius. Sisines, a member of Darius’s inner circle, was sent to meet the conspirator but was intercepted by Parmenion, who uncovered the plot. Both conspirators were imprisoned, and Alexander continued his campaign unharmed.

Meanwhile, reports came in of Memnon's movements in the Aegean. He had captured several islands, including Chios and Lesbos, and was besieging Mytilene. However, he died of illness during the siege, and command passed to his nephew Pharnabazus, who continued operations with a commander named Autophradates. Mytilene soon surrendered under terms unfavorable to its defenders, agreeing to abandon their alliance with Alexander and support Darius instead. Upon entering the city, Pharnabazus and Autophradates installed a ruler of their choosing, Diogenes, and extorted funds from the population.

The two commanders then departed with 100 ships to subdue the island of Tenedos, while the Persian general Datames was dispatched to the Cyclades with 10 ships. In response, Alexander sent a fleet under Proteas, son of Andronicus, to intercept him. Proteas captured 8 of the 10 ships and their crews, though Datames escaped.

Battle of Issus 333 BCE:

During his rapid campaign through Persian territory, Alexander fell seriously ill. Fortunately, a physician from Acarnania named Philip administered medicine that restored his health. Although Parmenion warned that Philip might be an assassin sent by Darius, Alexander dismissed the suspicion, and his condition quickly improved. He proceeded through the Cilician Gates, capturing Tarsus, Anchialus, and Soli.

While at Soli, Alexander received news that his generals Ptolemy and Asander had defeated a Persian force under Orontobates, killing around 750 men and capturing another 1,000. Soon after, he learned that Darius’s army was encamped just two days away. Without hesitation, Alexander marched out to confront them.

The two armies met on terrain favorable to the Macedonians—narrow and compact—ideal for their smaller force of 75,000 against Darius’s estimated 600,000. On the day of battle, Alexander waited for the enemy to close in, then launched a sudden charge at the Persian left flank. The Persians countered effectively through their Greek mercenaries, exploiting a gap between Alexander’s right flank and center. Many Macedonians were killed, including the general Ptolemy, son of Seleucus. However, the Macedonian right quickly regrouped, attacked the mercenaries, and routed them.

As the tide turned, Darius fled the battlefield. Roughly 100,000 Persian soldiers were killed, including nobles such as Arsames, Artizyes, and Rheomithres. Macedonian losses were fewer than 500. Alexander emerged with only a thigh wound.

Siege of Tyre 332 BCE:

Although Darius had lost the Battle of Issus, he remained alive and retained the loyalty of many Persians. Uncertain of which side to support, the people of Tyre chose to deny entry to both Macedonian and Persian forces. Enraged, Alexander launched a siege—one of the most difficult of his campaign. Tyre was situated on an island surrounded by high walls, making it extremely hard to breach. To reach it, Alexander’s men constructed a mole from the mainland, but as they advanced, Tyrian defenders bombarded them with arrows and debris, while their ships harassed the construction.

Fortune shifted when Enylus of Byblus and Gerostratus of Aradus defected from Autophradates’ navy, bringing about 80 ships to support Alexander. Additional reinforcements arrived: 22 ships from Rhodes, Soli, Mallus, and Lycia, and 120 from Cyprus, totaling 222 vessels. Alexander also welcomed 4,000 fresh Greek mercenaries delivered by Cleander, son of Polemocrates.

With naval superiority secured, the Tyrian fleet was destroyed and the defenders overwhelmed. Within two days, Alexander breached the city walls. Approximately 8,000 Tyrians were killed and 30,000 enslaved, while Macedonian casualties numbered around 400.

During the siege, Darius sent a peace offer: 10,000 talents for the release of his family, territory between the Aegean and the Euphrates, and his daughter’s hand in marriage. Alexander rejected it, claiming he had already taken Darius’s lands and wealth. Both sides again prepared for war.

This image reflects historical accounts of Tyrian divers who swam underwater to cut the ropes of siege crafts and ship anchors.

Siege of Gaza 332 BCE:

After the siege of Tyre, Alexander turned his attention to Gaza, a city of the Achaemenid Empire governed by Batis. Preparing for a prolonged siege, Batis stockpiled supplies and fortified the city’s high walls. Despite this, Gaza’s defenses proved no match for Macedonian siegecraft. As Alexander’s forces constructed their siege engines, Gaza’s defenders repeatedly attempted to destroy them with fire. In response, Alexander personally led a counterattack and was wounded in the shoulder by a catapult—a serious but non-fatal injury. Once the siege towers were completed, the Macedonians breached the walls and defeated the Gazaean defenders.

Battle of Gaugamela, October 331 BCE:

After capturing Gaza and crossing the River Tigris, Alexander learned from prisoners that Darius's army was far larger than previously thought, with over a million soldiers, including 15 elephants. Alexander’s confidence in his army was reaffirmed at the Battle of Gaugamela, where the Macedonians decisively defeated Darius for the second time. The battle was intense, with both sides experiencing successes, but as the situation worsened for the Persians, Darius once again fled the battlefield.

Unaware of their king's departure, Persian cavalry broke through the Macedonian left flank. Parmenion, stationed there, fought fiercely to hold off the cavalry and sent a messenger to Alexander. In response, Alexander quickly dispatched the Companion Cavalry to reinforce Parmenion and attacked the Persian right flank himself. After successfully repelling the enemy cavalry, Alexander survived a deadly counterattack that killed 60 of his men. With control of the left flank restored, he finished off the remainder of Darius's forces. Macedonian casualties were reported to be around 100, while Persian losses were estimated at 300,000.

Death:

The cause of Alexander’s mysterious death has sparked many debates. Historical accounts mention that, the night before he fell ill, a friend dared him to drink an entire krater of wine, raising suspicions of alcohol poisoning. However, other theories suggest alternative causes. Dr. Katherine Hall proposes that Alexander may have suffered from Guillain-Barré syndrome, a neurological disorder. Hall argues that Alexander's subtle breathing, caused by his unconscious state, led physicians to incorrectly pronounce his death. The fact that Alexander’s body didn’t decompose for six days supports this theory. If true, his death would have been agonizing, particularly during the embalming process. At just 32, Alexander died in the ancient city of Babylon, leaving behind a fractured empire. His death sparked revolts across the Macedonian realm, and his generals fought among themselves for control of the throne.