The Vikings
Raiders, Explorers, and the Warriors Who Shook Europe
From the late 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings surged out of Scandinavia in sleek, fast longships that carried them across vast distances—from the icy North Atlantic to the rivers of Eastern Europe. Often remembered as fierce raiders who struck monasteries like the famous attack on Lindisfarne in 793, the Vikings were also skilled traders, explorers, and settlers. They established trade networks linking Europe, Asia, and even reached North America centuries before Columbus. Their influence reshaped kingdoms, language, and culture across the medieval world, leaving a legacy that still echoes in modern place names, mythology, and popular imagination.
Origins & Homeland
Although they shared a common Norse culture and language, the Vikings were not a single unified group. Instead, they were broadly divided into three regional groups based on their homelands in Scandinavia: the Danes, the Norwegians, and the Swedes, each with distinct patterns of expansion and influence. The Danes, originating in modern-day Denmark, were the most active in Western Europe. They carried out raids and later established settlements in England, Ireland, and northern France, including the region that became Normandy. The Norwegians, from present-day Norway, were renowned explorers of the North Atlantic, settling in places such as Iceland and Greenland and reaching North America. The Swedes, based in what is now Sweden, focused largely eastward, traveling along river systems through Eastern Europe and forming trade networks that connected the Baltic Sea to the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world. These regional differences were shaped by geography, local political structures, and access to trade routes, but together they formed the diverse and far-reaching world of the Vikings.
Raids & Warfare
Viking raids began in 793 with the shocking attack on the monastery at Lindisfarne, a wealthy but poorly defended religious center off the coast of Northumbria. In the following years, similar strikes hit monasteries at Jarrow Abbey and Iona Abbey. These early raids were typically small, fast operations aimed at seizing portable wealth such as silver, gold, and valuable religious objects. Monasteries were frequent targets not only because they were rich, but because they were isolated and lacked strong defenses. Viking longships allowed warriors to land quickly, attack with surprise, and retreat before local forces could respond.
By the mid-9th century, Viking activity had evolved from hit-and-run raids into organized military campaigns. In 865, a large coalition force known as the Great Heathen Army landed in England. Over several years, it conquered major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms including Northumbria and East Anglia and forced Wessex into submission. Resistance eventually came under King Alfred the Great, who reorganized defenses and defeated Viking leader Guthrum at the Battle of Edington in 878. This led to the division of England and the creation of the Danelaw, where Scandinavian law and customs dominated much of eastern England.
Vikings also launched major assaults on continental Europe. In 845, a Viking fleet sailed up the Seine and attacked Paris, forcing the Frankish king Charles the Bald to pay a large ransom. Similar raids struck towns along the rivers of what is now France and Germany, showing how Viking mobility gave them strategic advantages deep inland. In Ireland, Norse warriors established long-term bases and eventually founded coastal towns such as Dublin, which became a major trading center.
Viking warfare was not limited to western Europe. Swedish-led Vikings, often called Varangians, traveled east along river routes through modern-day Russia and Ukraine, sometimes serving as elite mercenaries for the Byzantine Empire. At the same time, Norwegian Vikings pushed into the North Atlantic, and Danish kings later attempted full-scale invasions of England. The Viking Age in England is often considered to end in 1066, when King Harald Hardrada was defeated and killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.
Across nearly three centuries, Viking warfare ranged from lightning-fast coastal raids to large territorial conquests and international military service. Their adaptability, naval skill, and fierce reputation made them one of the most formidable forces of the early medieval world.
Famous Vikings
Leif Erikson (970 - 1020)
Leif Erikson was a Norse explorer from Greenland and the son of Erik the Red. Around the year 1000, he led an expedition westward and reached a land he called Vinland, believed to be part of coastal North America (likely Newfoundland, Canada). This makes him one of the first known Europeans to reach North America, nearly 500 years before Columbus. Archaeological evidence at L’Anse aux Meadows supports the Norse presence there. Leif is famous for exploration rather than warfare.
Erik the Red (950 - 1003)
Erik the Red founded the first permanent Norse settlements in Greenland around 985. Exiled from Iceland for violent disputes, he sailed west and established colonies that survived for centuries. He is remembered for both his fiery temperament—earning his nickname—and his role in expanding Viking settlement into the North Atlantic.
Ragnar Lothbrok (possibly 9th century)
Ragnar is a semi-legendary Viking figure appearing in Norse sagas and later medieval writings. He is said to have led raids on France and England, including a famous attack on Paris in 845. However, historians debate whether he was a single real person or a legendary composite of several Viking leaders. He is famous largely because of saga literature rather than firm historical documentation.
Harald Hardrada (1015 - 1066)
Harald Hardrada was one of the last great Viking warrior-kings. Before becoming King of Norway, he served as a mercenary in the Byzantine Empire’s elite Varangian Guard. In 1066, he invaded England to claim the throne but was defeated and killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. His death is often seen as marking the end of the Viking Age.
Cnut the Great (990 - 1035)
Cnut (also spelled Canute) was a Danish king who conquered England in 1016 and eventually ruled a vast North Sea Empire including England, Denmark, and Norway. Unlike earlier raiders, Cnut ruled as a Christian king and successfully governed a multicultural empire. He is remembered as one of the most powerful and politically successful Viking rulers.
Rollo (860 - 930)
Rollo was a Viking leader who besieged parts of France before making a treaty with the Frankish king in 911. He was granted land in what became Normandy in exchange for loyalty and protection against other raiders. His descendants later became the Norman rulers of England after 1066.
The Battle of Stamford Bridge
The Battle of Stamford Bridge was fought on 25 September 1066 near the River Derwent in Yorkshire, and it is traditionally regarded as the event that marked the end of the Viking Age. The battle was part of a three-way struggle for the English throne following the death of King Edward the Confessor in January 1066. After Edward’s death, Harold Godwinson was crowned king. However, his claim was challenged by two powerful rivals: William the Conqueror in Normandy and Harald Hardrada of Norway.
Harald Hardrada, one of the most experienced warrior-kings of his time, claimed that an earlier agreement between Scandinavian rulers gave him a right to the English crown. He allied with Tostig Godwinson, Harold’s exiled brother, who sought revenge after being removed as Earl of Northumbria. In September 1066, Hardrada sailed from Norway with a large fleet—traditionally said in the sources to be around 300 ships, though exact numbers are debated—and landed in northern England. On 20 September 1066, Hardrada and Tostig defeated local English earls Edwin and Morcar at the Battle of Fulford near York. Following this victory, the Norwegian forces expected hostages and supplies from the city of York and arranged to meet nearby at Stamford Bridge.
King Harold Godwinson responded with remarkable speed. After learning of the invasion, he marched his army roughly 185 miles (about 300 km) from southern England to Yorkshire in only a few days. This rapid movement caught Hardrada by surprise. On 25 September, Harold’s army arrived unexpectedly at Stamford Bridge while many of the Norwegian troops were lightly armed and without full armor, having left much of their equipment with their ships.
According to later chroniclers, a lone Viking warrior held the bridge against advancing English soldiers for a time before being killed—though this story may contain elements of legend. What is clear is that fierce fighting followed on both sides of the River Derwent.
During the battle, Harald Hardrada was struck in the throat by an arrow and killed. Tostig Godwinson also died in the fighting. With their leaders dead, the Norwegian army collapsed. Only a fraction of the original fleet was needed to carry survivors back to Norway—later accounts claim just 24 ships returned, though medieval numbers are often symbolic or exaggerated. The defeat was devastating for Norway and ended serious Scandinavian attempts to conquer England. It is for this reason that historians traditionally mark 1066—and specifically Stamford Bridge—as the end of the Viking Age, which had begun in 793 with the raid on Lindisfarne.
Although Harold Godwinson won a decisive victory, his triumph was short-lived. Just days later, he was forced to march his exhausted army south to face William of Normandy, who had landed on England’s southern coast. On 14 October 1066, Harold was defeated and killed at the Battle of Hastings. Ironically, William himself descended from Viking settlers through Rollo. The Battle of Stamford Bridge therefore stands as a turning point in European history. It marked the collapse of large-scale Viking invasions and the final failure of Scandinavian claims to the English throne. At the same time, it set the stage for the Norman Conquest, which reshaped England’s ruling class, language, and political structure for centuries to come.